Various interventions are used to help these students learn effectively. Video modelling is one of them and is a strategy which makes use of videos in providing a modelling in the targeted skills (Bellini &Akullian, 2007). The two videos which comprise of participant, or video self-modeling(VSM) as well as video from other people are identified as effective in the process of teaching skills especially new ones to students with autism(Sherer et al, 2001).It is able to improve the conversation skills, daily skills of living, play skills, increase the social interactions and reduce the behaviourproblems. In several occasions, the new skills learned through this process are maintained for a long period of time (Maione&Mirenda, 2006).

Time delay is one effective intervention in preventing the so called prompt dependence because these prompts are faded systematically such that the students with ASD focus on the situations that are naturally occurring instead of prompts which use target skills (McCormick, 2006a).For instance, a student with ASD cannot put on his coat on a daily basis until somebody else like the teacher tells him to.Time delay is important aspect for students with ASD as it helps them to learn aspects related to various skills such as academics, communication language as well as play. With this, the teachers could be able to implement trials in learning in which a controlling prompt and cue could be used in teaching the target skills(Maione&Mirenda, 2006). As the student become successful in implementing the new skills he or she has acquired, the teacher adds time interval on controlling prompt and initial cue by making use of two procedures namely; progressive time delay and constant time delay.

Pictureexchange communication system is another intervention where most of the learners with autism make use of picture cards to communicate. These pictures are obtained from newspapers, magazines and some even purchased or printed from different sources such as CD’s. The pictures gives the learners with autism the ability to speak out their needs, ideas as well as desires without having to make use of the spoken language. Now that most of the students with autism spectrum usually learn visually, it is necessary for them to be taught using the images(Frost &Bondy, 2006).For the autism students, PECS is a synonymous word which comprises of picture cards. If the teachers decide to use the picture exchange community system other than just using the picture cards in communication one must be trained in pyramid products. The program used to train students prepares the individuals to work with students in six phases. In the first phase the teacher should work with the student and care providers so as to identify things that could be very motivating to the learner. Such things include food, toys or balls.

Finally, graphic organizer is a visual support meant to offer students with visual representation of concepts and facts in an organized framework (Marks, 2003). This effectively arranges the important terms so as to show their connection with one another offering implicit and abstract information in a visual and concrete manner.The reason as to why they are very much effective is that they can be utilised before, during and even after the learner has read a certain selection either as a concept measure of attainment or answer organizer (Marks, 2003). The Graphic organizers on the other hand give way for processing times to the students because they are able to reflect on material written in their own pace.

These interventions have been shown to effectively bring good results to students who have autism spectrum disorder. The approaches comprise of wide utility and are very much useful to students with different ranges of abilities, age as they lead to independent functioning. The methods could be applied with the aim of addressing various objectives of learners such as self-help, behavioral, social and communication objectives. The paper aims at discussing the video modeling on students with autism. Two case examples will be discussed on how the video modelling is used on students with the disorder

Literature Review

Video Modelling is a strategy which makes use of videos in providing a modeling in the targeted skills (Bellini &Akullian, 2007). The two videos which comprise of participant or video self-modeling (VSM) as well as video from other people are identified as effective in the process of teaching skills especially new ones to students with autism. The video modeling together with other types of models are very much easier to use and produce as they require very little editing as compared to VSM. The placing of video camera at a certain angle to illustrate target skill or point of view modeling where a model places camera on shoulder to demonstrate a skill from the level of the eye are also effective methods (Bellini &Akullian, 2007).

The video modeling flexibility is an advantage in that on top of addressing various skills for a set of age ranges, it could be implemented singly or together with various instructional strategies. For instance, Baharav& Darling (2008) made use of video modeling together with auditory trainer. Keen et al (2007) used it with strategies of positive reinforcement while Scattone (2008) used it together with social stories. Even if the video modeling could be used alone, it is best when combined with other strategies (Bellini &Akullian, 2007). Some of the skills that could be improved through the method of video modelling include; Social initiation, for instance when a student asks a colleague in school to have lunch together. Conversations such as “May I sit close to you?” “Have a look at this.” are very much encouraged. Giving greetings and also responding to them is another skill initiated.

Non verbal communications that are appropriate are also taught. This includes showing much interest on what other students or people are saying. This is done by nodding, smiling or having eye contact. The students are also taught to identify non verbal cues of other people (Maione&Mirenda, 2006).

Conversation skills are also taught where the learners are shown how to maintain the conversations and still remain on topic, making of comments which are in regard with previous activities. The students are also shown how to make jokes and also respond to other people’s comments. This makes them be able to enjoy staying with other people as they are in a position to share attention(Nikopoulos& Keenan, 2003). The students are shown how they can narrate stories to one another without repeating one thing several times. They are taught the art of saying something once or twice. They also get to learn how to use appropriate language and use of manners. For instance, using works like thank you, excuse me and please which show courtesy.

The students are also taught how to play various games. This is done by first showing them how to initiate a game, the best statements that are appropriate for specific games the behaviour in sports and also the comments that are best in line with specific games (Le, & Freeman, 2000).

The students can also be taught the aspect of community outings through the video modelling. They are shown the best restaurant behaviours, how to purchase items, making use of the public transport among others. They can also be taken through the processes involved when one is ordering food in a fast food restaurant and frequent visits to the dentist and medical doctors. Students may also be taught the appropriate behaviour when in special events i.e. in birthday parties, family events, weddings, funerals and holidays. They are also taught how to respond to demands or requests from adults, teasing and also the way to excuse themselves for hygiene purposes without disturbing other people. Other aspects that can be taught include hair cuts, table manners, travel by car or airplane, and waiting to be served in a line.

The students on the other hand could be taught the art of asking questions to get certain information and also how to answer questions such as what is the name of your school? What is your name? Which sport is your favourite? Among others.The art of making requests or asking permission is also taught using video modelling (Bellini &Akullian, 2007).For instance, when a student wants to obtain a preferred item, food or to perform a certain activity.The learners should also be taught how to borrow something, request for a turn may be to answer a question offering or requesting to do a certain activity among others. All these could be done by first lifting their hand so that the teacher can be able to see them. The students therefore need to be told why lifting their hand is important in a classroom session. The students can also be taught how to ask for assistance and also requesting for space. i.e. personal space.

There are 3 major steps involved in the video modeling implementation for students with autism.

Intervention preparation

1. Identify Target Skills

This involves steps such as listing, assessment, prioritizing skills, obtaining baseline data and defining skills. Before the implementation of video modeling, it is important to document the so called baseline data of the student’s deficits and social strengths (Heflin &Alaimo, 2007). This comprise of ecological assessments which shows the abilities of the student as compared with the peers in a targeted activity or environment, natural environment observations, behavior sampling, interviews and questionnaires filled by staff in the school, peers, parents and self report from the students (Heflin &Alaimo, 2007). After that, it is important to make a report comprising of skills making use of the results obtained from the assessment and then prioritize the skills in an order. For instance, the way they are important. The target skills could be defined objectively and should be based on the data observed.

2. Produce Videos

Before developing the video, it is important to determine the bet media for use that is, whether digital or videotape. Obtain all the requirements that are important such as the video player, video camera, and monitor among others. Have a plan to create about 5 videos in every skill and offer various settings and models for instance the adults, students and peers (Sherer et al, 2001). The scripts plus tasks are to be analyzed for the purpose of skill generalization (D’ Atieno et al, 2003).

To ensure effectiveness on the strategy, about 3-5 task analyses or scripts should be made for every skill that is to be taught (Ganz et al, 2006). The said scripts may be used for all the skills which involve verbalization such as initiating conversations, greeting others among others while the task analyses may be used in multistep tasks such as using microwave to prepare popcorn, dishwasher loading and doing the household chores (Sigafoos et al, 2007). The moment one is writing scripts, it is important to consider getting input from students who are developing peers and therefore could become good judges in nonverbal communication, typical activities as well as speech patterns as compared to adults. Task analyses could be managed through watching a developing adult or peer performing the said skill.

It is important to seek for permission from the parent in every video participants as well as minor models. These models are supposed to be taught every step in the analysis of the task or script, practice and later on perform as they are videotaped (Ganz et al, 2006). The models should be of the same gender or age to the student being targeted. Edit each and every video so that it is about 5 minutes though they are effective from 30 seconds to 13 minutes (Bellini &Akullian, 2007).

3. Implementation of the Video Modeling Intervention

This stage involves preparing to teach and video viewing where by the most appropriate time is during the day. The specific videos that focus on a certain skill are supposed to be viewed on daily basis at specific time of the day. On top of that, the video is supposed to be viewed before the time a student is supposed to show the skill. For instance, if the script and video show the way to join a game, the video should be shown before the class begins.

When aiming for best results, the video is supposed to be viewed consistently. This increases the instruction relevance.The setting is supposed to be a place where the child is meant to show the skill. Those resources made use of in the video should be similar to the ones the student will use during the demonstration of the targeted behavior.

The video could be watched independently or as a group and this depends on the student needs as well as instructional setting (Buggey, 2005). It is important to plan for a situation where the students observe each of the 5 videos that are developed for a skill being targeted before engaging in an activity or skill that is selected.

After viewing the video, immediately give the student a chance to perfect the skill through practicing in a natural setting. If it is impossible, have a plan on practicing of the skill or role playing in classroom setting. Alternatively, it is possible to arrange situations in therapy settings or school whereby a student can make use of target skill.

After this, collect the data on the performance of the student. To be in a position to identify the video modeling effectiveness, similar type of data can be collected for the intervention phase and the baseline (Sigafoos et al, 2007).

The students with ASD usually comprise of problems when generalizing the skills that are newly acquired. Generalization programming is therefore necessary in any instructions through social skills (Gresham, 2001). Using video modeling to teach skills should involve teaching various response and stimulus exemplars. This means that when a student is being taught on the way to join a game, it is important to include different settings such as gym, playground and neighborhood scripts such as “May I play?” and also peers in all the various videos. Other strategies in generalization involve teaching a student ways of self-recording, self-monitoring, using target skill among others. Social skill teaching should also be taught if possible in a natural environment (Gresham, 2001). The videos should be viewed several times as this helps in making arrangements so as to make students access the video for viewing independently when need be.

4. Troubleshooting

One should not be inclined and have a feeling of abandoning video modeling very fast and especially when the initial data shows limited progress on the behavior being targeted. Even if it may appear that the strategy is no fail intervention or easy as compared to other techniques in teaching, issues could come up when implementing. Inadequate progress could be as a result of lacking reinforcement, inadequate prerequisites or poor content of video (Sigafoos, 2007).

In addressing the inadequate reinforcement challenge, it is important for one to come up with reinforcing stimuli which could be delivered consistently and immediately following a demonstration of behavior being targeted. Poor or low video content may on the other hand affect intervention impact. If the content of the video become an issue, it is important to reshoot or rewrite the video. If one is filming the video, one should consider restricting the extraneous stimuli such as visual distractions and too much noise. It is important also to make sure the behavior being targeted is modeled clearly and slowly. If in any case there is an observation that the student doesn’t possess prerequisite skills of observational learning and imitation, consider using the instructions that are adult directed in the process.

Now that the children suffering from ASD comprise of a big propensity to be educated via visual means as compared to the teaching techniques that are auditory based, strategies that are visually based like video modeling hold a great promise in the knowledge impacting to these children. Video modeling is a method that is mainly based on the theory of social learning that explains that students may learn through observing and later on imitate the actions done by others. The video modeling on the other hand is appealing in the way it addresses the deficiencies in social skills in children suffering from ASD in unobtrusive fashion and low cost.

Video modelling also provides flexibility to the educators through implementing whether making use of other models, various settings among others when targeting the student. For the method to be successful, it should always be in direct instruction as well as natural skills which in most cases undermine the success of the method in much context (Schreibman& Ingersoll, 2005).

Case examples were studied to understand the concept and how it works on video modeling. Scott in seventh grade qualified to attend special education via autism designation though he had not met the entire criteria. He obtained an average of 66% on specialized instruction on the class of special education with help of one on one paraprofessional. His educational program involved data based programming which advocated for functional academics, social and communication skills. He also received a speech therapy for 120 minutes and weekly occupational therapy.

On the first step of identifying target skills, the IEP team tried several strategies with the aim of increasing the ability of the student to generalize the knowledge and academic skills he showed in school and at home setting. They made use of various fonts, verbal antecedents, incorporated opportunities and materials for Scott to make use of the learnt aspects through the various settings in the school and community at large.

Even after using all these strategies, the student had problems in completing homework which intended him to use skills learnt in school on that day. To obtain a baseline, mastered sight words in school were sent at home to her mother. The mother could then present the words and obtain data on Scott’s performance.

The next step involved producing videos(Schreibman& Ingersoll, 2005).. Now that Scott could finish the tasks in school, VSM was used where little editing was done. The next author videotaped the student accurately in school reading flash disks, edited to delete the wrong responses in the video and sent it home so that Scott could watch it before starting homework every day.

The final step involved the implementation of video modelling intervention. The mother of Scott collected information on the performance of his son using the flash cards for a whole week. He then allowed him to watch on daily bases for fun. Scott went on to review the words in school during the maintenance programming. The next week, the mother showed him video on daily bases and discussed what they observed. She always tried to mention various words mentioned well in the video. She then presented the card and tracked the performance of her son. She kept on giving his son social reinforcement in every correct answer given. She then reported the social validity for the procedure of VSM. She reported that the procedure was a reinforcing experience and positive. Scott enjoyed himself as he found himself a successful person.

Even though Scott was improving in reading flash card words, it was not clear on whether he could continue the same and also in various other contexts. He sometimes became frustrated when he was not able to read the sight words.The mother though of making use of various videos with several examples and tasks which could motivate the student.

Any adolescent life is never complete without the love, the attention and the interaction of the peers they live within their environment; Sara was no different from others however she was diagnosed with asperger syndrome but still managed to enrol in school and attend classes just like the other normal children do and with her case special support was highly encouraged (Schreibman& Ingersoll, 2005).

Due to her cognitive condition; it was hard for her to have friends and interact with them freely even though she wanted to, she used a number of ways to try and get to the peers who seemed to care less about her. For example she would always follow the peers after class to wherever they are going to, she would also listen to the other students whenever they shared ideas but nonetheless would remain passive during that time and finally she would shower her friends with gifts of all kinds including CD’s and candy all these directed at attracting their attention(Sigafoos, 2007). Despite all this attempt Sara remained passive and very lonely among the peers and as a result she came up with other unique strategies that would attract the attention of the peers i.e. she learnt that passing a gas in class would make other students laugh at her for sometimes and that it would also live a lasting memory for some time period to the whole class.

After noting that all these efforts did not give her friends and the company she much needed she went to the study hall teacher and expressed her frustrations over inability to find friends among the peers she could hang out with and together with the district autism consultant they developed strategies that would help solve the problem in three main steps .The first step involved the selection of several social skills followed by conduction of an ecological assessment, the team argued that initiating social interaction skill would the best way to improve her social behaviour among her peers hence they studied her within the cafeteria during lunch hours. In addition the team argued that Sara lacked positive interaction skills and that if this would be developed then she would improve her quality of life by developing new friends.

Secondly the team used videos to implement the first strategy that was conducted in the study hall and this was done to enable the observation of the students who were participating in the interview within the student hall, the questions given to the students were open ended and this allowed open conversation among the students (Gresham, 2001). Upon completion the team came up with detailed videos of the whole interview process in the hallway conversing with peers, this was considered important since it was able to show the team what the peers had to say about Sara that could improve her social skills. Thirdly the team then implemented the first strategy by use of recorded events, they identified different location and also time when Sara would watch the videos and after watching the videos she was expected to demonstrate the events and responds just as done by his peers

In addition after watching the video she was expected to come up with proper and convenient ways by which she would be able to initiate conversation among her friends, the study hall teacher and the district consultant challenged her to develop a list of all the initiation phrases that were used in the video and role play them with anyone including the teacher and the peers, a part from that she was to suggest other measures and phrases that would also help her initiate a conversation with friends .

In summary, after the team had collected and observed all the available data they began to notice that during lunch hours Sara would be seen joining her friends for lunch and the same also applied to her receiving friends request on the social sites such a Facebook and on this realization of success the team developed other videos that enabled her to generalize concepts that were much needed by Sara to add to the already adapted ones and this proved a success more than enough as more changes were realized as compared to the first periods of time in class and the school environment at large.

The process provides the educators with flexibility to implement even as they make use of other models, target adults, students and various settings. For the method to have high success level, it should always have natural and direct occurring opportunities (Schreibman& Ingersoll, 2005). Video modelling facilitated support and directs instruction in the environment that is naturally occurring is very much apt to cause great success. Video modelling offers the teachers heuristic tool which assist the learners improve the communication, work related behaviour and skills which frequently undermine the success on various contexts.

Conclusion

The paper has succeeded in looking at the various ways of educating students with autism. Learners with this disorder have big problems in communication and they have difficulties in trying to understand the way other people feel and think. It is therefore very difficult for them to communicate or express themselves through words, touch, gestures or facial expressions. Video modeling is one of the methods. It provides the educators with flexibility to implement even as they make use of other models, target adults, students and various settings. Video modeling directs instruction in the environment that is naturally occurring and is very much apt to have great success. Two case examples of Scott and Sara have been used to demonstrate how the video modelling works. It offers the teachers heuristic tool which aids the students improve the communication, work related behaviour and skills which frequently undermine the success on various contexts. The paper has shown the steps involved in preparing for the intervention and also the implementation of video modelling intervention.

Time delay is another important aspect for students with autism as it enables them to learn aspects that are related to various skills such as academics, communication language as well as play. With this, the teachers could be able to implement trials in learning in which a controlling prompt and cue could be used in teaching the target skills.

Finally, PECS is worth it as it offers the students with various tools of communicating independently and spontaneously. On the other hand, it makes communication very smooth and the process lowers the negative behaviors that result from frustrations, increase emotional closeness and relatedness and also build the language that is spoken.

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Appendix

1. How special education study has alerted you on professional identity

At the beginning, I did not have knowledge on the disabilities with students as well as the characteristics of these disabilities. The study of special education has made me more informed on my professional identity as it has helped me understand the way I should make use of methods dealing with the learners who have disabilities whenever they possess negative behaviour. It has also taught me on the way to have a better environment for meeting with the learners with needs and gave me encouragement to always help the learners with disabilities together with their families being sincere and with confidence.

2. The need for teaching for social justice

In education, social justice aims at teaching and also learning students without factoring in their gender, group affiliation, language, ethnicity, disability or race. The main aim of social justice is to fight oppression through providing all groups with an opportunity to accept the available resources in the same way. On the other hand, the social justice provides No Child Left Behind and inclusions. The students who have special needs should be held with same standards with those who don’t have disabilities. When social justice is taught it will help the educators to be informed about it and learners with disability. This will assist the teachers aim at the needs of students and the ay to teach them equally and fairly so as to meet the education goals.

3. How to collaborate with other professionals to help meet needs of the learners with disabilities

The learners with disabilities together with their members of their family require assistance to achieve the needs in special education from the professionals. I will therefore work together with other professionals so as to meet the student’s needs through coming up with a plan to implement the student’s needs and make use of the interventions available so achieve this goal. I will also engage the students on various social activities so as to have them interact socially. I will also apply various techniques to deal with them whenever they exhibit a negative behavior. On the other hand, their parents will be involved so as to compare the improvement of students both at home and in school. Finally, I will evaluate the learners and the on the education needs and provide support to them and members of family.

4. Your understanding on the challenges faced by linguistically and culturally diverse students.

These students face various issues for them to access education. One of the challenges is racial discrimination which impacts the abilities of learning to the students. When the learners don’t have a feeling of safety, being inclusive in the curriculum or are challenged academically, they always are unable to produce in their creative capacity of efficiently. Most of these students tend to drop out of school as there is heavy pressure of discrimination and insult. This destroys their need to perform well academically and also self-esteem reduces. The teachers should not therefore assess, look or deal with such students looking at their race. This is because they will be denying them their right to be students. They should therefore try to know their background, needs and culture to help improve their academic achievement.